1841 Census of Great Britain,
Occupations (Sample Report Title: Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to Acts 3 & 4 Vict. c. 99, and 4 Vict. c. 7, intituled respectively " An Act "for taking an Account of the Population of Great Britain," and "An Act to amend the "Acts of the last Session for taking an Account of the Population." Occupation Abstract, 1841: Part I. England and Wales, and Islands in the British Seas),
Table
[1]
: "
Occupation Abstract".
OCCUPATIONS |
Males
|
Females
|
20 Years of Age and upwards
[1]
|
Under 20 Years of Age
[2]
|
20 Years of Age and upwards
[3]
|
Under 20 Years of Age
[4]
|
Accountant |
26
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Agent and Factor (branch not specified) |
14
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Agricultural Implement and Machine-maker |
9
|
1
|
6
|
1
|
Anchor-smith |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Animal and Bird-dealer |
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Architect |
17
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Army |
294
|
102
|
0
|
0
|
Army Agent |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Army Clothier |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Army, Half-pay |
12
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Artist |
23
|
2
|
3
|
0
|
Attorney |
168
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
Auctioneer, Appraiser, Land and Estate-agent |
57
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Aurist |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Baker |
826
|
131
|
64
|
0
|
Banker |
42
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Barrister |
21
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Basket-maker |
146
|
8
|
6
|
1
|
Beehive-maker |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Bill-sticker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Bird-preserver |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Blacking-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Blacksmith and Smith |
1,404
|
164
|
41
|
4
|
Block (Calico Print) Cutter |
14
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Block and Mast-maker |
21
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
Boat and Barge Owner |
7
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Boat and Barge-builder |
20
|
5
|
1
|
0
|
Boat and Bargeman |
192
|
10
|
1
|
0
|
Bone-dealer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Bonnet-maker |
2
|
0
|
90
|
19
|
Bookseller and Bookbinder |
73
|
7
|
6
|
4
|
Boot and Shoe-maker |
2,701
|
303
|
72
|
12
|
Brass-founder |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Brazier |
76
|
6
|
5
|
1
|
Brewer |
165
|
7
|
3
|
0
|
Brick and Tile-maker |
431
|
79
|
7
|
5
|
Bricklayer |
1,309
|
145
|
6
|
1
|
Brimstone-refiner |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Broker |
41
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
Broker, Bill |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Broker, Furniture |
23
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Broker, Stock |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Brush and Broom-maker |
87
|
13
|
1
|
0
|
Builder |
171
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Butcher |
875
|
95
|
31
|
1
|
Butcher, Pork |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer |
260
|
44
|
16
|
2
|
Canal Service |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Cap-maker |
0
|
0
|
8
|
4
|
Carpenter and Joiner |
2,771
|
249
|
21
|
2
|
Carrier, Carter, and Waggoner |
522
|
29
|
16
|
2
|
Carver and Gilder |
10
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Cattle-dealer |
41
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Cellarman |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Chair-maker |
21
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
Charcoal-burner |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Charwoman |
0
|
0
|
253
|
0
|
Cheesemonger |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Chemical-manufacture |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Chemist and Druggist |
124
|
22
|
7
|
1
|
Chimney-sweeper |
48
|
30
|
2
|
1
|
China, Glass, and Earthenware-dealer |
12
|
1
|
8
|
0
|
China-mender |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Clergyman |
388
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Clerk |
401
|
56
|
1
|
0
|
Clock and Watch-maker |
130
|
14
|
6
|
0
|
Clock-case-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Clothes-dealer |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Clothier |
24
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Coach Maker (all branches) |
201
|
26
|
2
|
0
|
Coachman, Coach-guard, and Postboy |
186
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Coach-owner |
32
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Coal Labourer |
40
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Coal Merchant and Dealer |
45
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Coffee House-keeper |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Colonial Broker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Colour and Dye-maker |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Comb-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Confectioner and Pastrycook |
63
|
9
|
16
|
1
|
Cooper |
174
|
17
|
4
|
0
|
Copper-smith |
20
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Cork-cutter and Dealer |
24
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Corn Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Corn Meter |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Corn-dealer and Factor |
70
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Cotton Manufacture (all branches) |
16
|
3
|
5
|
6
|
Crape-manufacturer and Weaver |
3
|
0
|
17
|
7
|
Curiosity-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Currier and Leather-seller |
121
|
14
|
4
|
0
|
Cutler |
29
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
Dentist |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Distiller and Rectifier |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dock Service |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Draper |
208
|
45
|
26
|
2
|
Draper, Linen |
56
|
11
|
3
|
0
|
Draughtsman |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Drawing-instrument-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dredger |
136
|
13
|
0
|
0
|
Dredger, Oyster |
71
|
18
|
0
|
0
|
Drill-master |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Drover |
64
|
10
|
0
|
0
|
Dustman |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer |
26
|
2
|
4
|
0
|
Dyer, Silk |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer, Wool |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
East India Company's Service |
5
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Eating-house-keeper |
5
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Egg-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Embroiderer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Engine and Machine-maker |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Engineer and Engine-worker |
105
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
Engineer, Civil |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Engraver |
11
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Exhibitor (Showman) |
3
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Factory-worker (manufacture not specified) |
15
|
2
|
17
|
19
|
Fan-maker |
12
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Farm-bailiff and Steward |
364
|
9
|
2
|
0
|
Farmer and Grazier |
4,575
|
120
|
415
|
11
|
Farrier and Cattle-doctor |
162
|
8
|
0
|
1
|
Fellmonger |
39
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Felt-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Fish-dealer |
80
|
3
|
4
|
0
|
Fisherman |
476
|
177
|
0
|
0
|
Florist |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Flour-dealer and Mealman |
19
|
1
|
4
|
0
|
French-polisher |
6
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Fringe-manufacturer |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Fuller (Factory) |
1
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
Furniture-japanner |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Furrier |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Gardener |
1,639
|
97
|
21
|
0
|
Gas-works Service |
13
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
General Dealer |
127
|
3
|
12
|
7
|
Ginger-beer and Soda-water-maker |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glass (Plate) Manufacturer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glass Cutter and Worker |
7
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Glass Manufacturer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glover and Glove-maker |
61
|
5
|
13
|
3
|
Gofferer |
0
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, All other Departments |
19
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, Customs and Excise |
169
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, Post-office |
71
|
4
|
10
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, Stamps and Taxes |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Green-grocer and Fruiterer |
75
|
3
|
36
|
1
|
Grocer and Tea-dealer |
678
|
91
|
108
|
1
|
Groom and Hostler |
339
|
45
|
0
|
0
|
Gun Powder-maker |
24
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Gun-maker |
39
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
Haberdasher and Hosier |
14
|
0
|
9
|
2
|
Hair-dresser |
169
|
13
|
3
|
0
|
Hair-manufacturer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Hatter and Hat-maker (all branches) |
33
|
1
|
4
|
0
|
Hawker, Huckster, and Pedlar |
282
|
19
|
37
|
1
|
Hay and Straw-dealer |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Hemp-dresser and Spinner |
3
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Hoop-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Horn-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Horse-clipper |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Horse-dealer and Trainer |
113
|
10
|
0
|
0
|
Hurdle-maker |
9
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Indian Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Indigo-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Iron Founder and Moulder |
74
|
9
|
2
|
0
|
Iron Master |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ironmonger |
93
|
11
|
1
|
0
|
Jeweller, Goldsmith, and Silversmith |
35
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Jobber |
132
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
Keeper, Game, Gate, and Lodge |
137
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Keeper, Lunatic Asylum |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Keeper, Public Institution |
42
|
5
|
26
|
0
|
Knitter |
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
Knitter, Framework |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Knitter, Stocking |
1
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Labourer |
5,391
|
948
|
239
|
77
|
Labourer, Agricultural |
35,774
|
6,516
|
1,072
|
310
|
Last-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Lath-dealer and Render |
40
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Laundry-keeper and Washer-woman |
14
|
2
|
655
|
26
|
Librarian |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Lighthouse-house Keeper |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Lime-burner |
23
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Livery-stable-keeper |
117
|
5
|
3
|
0
|
Locksmith and Bell-hanger |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Lodging-house-keeper |
0
|
0
|
16
|
0
|
Mail Contractor |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Maltster |
254
|
8
|
3
|
0
|
Marine-store-dealer |
9
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Mason and Stone-cutter |
119
|
9
|
1
|
0
|
Match-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Match-seller |
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Mat-maker |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Mattress-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Merchant |
212
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Midwife |
0
|
0
|
9
|
0
|
Milk-seller and Cow-keeper |
55
|
2
|
9
|
0
|
Miller |
777
|
77
|
14
|
1
|
Milliner and Dress-maker |
5
|
1
|
851
|
218
|
Millwright |
84
|
8
|
1
|
0
|
Miner |
3
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
Miner, Coal |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Miner, Copper |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Minister |
123
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Model-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Moulder |
10
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Musical Instrument-maker and Seller |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Musician |
15
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Nail-maker |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Navy |
110
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Navy Agent |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Navy, Half-pay |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Net-maker |
3
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
Newsman |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Newspaper Editor, Proprietor, and Reporter |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Notary |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Nurse |
0
|
0
|
324
|
5
|
Nurseryman |
33
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Oil and Colourman |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Optician |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Orange-merchant and Dealer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Organ-builder |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Organist |
0
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
Oyster-dealer |
10
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Painter, Glazier, and Plumber |
574
|
62
|
13
|
0
|
Paper Stainer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Paper-hanger |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Paper-maker |
5
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Parochial and Church-officer |
86
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
Patten and Clog-maker |
14
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Pattern (Calico) Designer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pattern (Silk) Drawer |
1
|
0
|
3
|
4
|
Pattern-designer and Maker |
4
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Pawnbroker |
16
|
7
|
1
|
0
|
Percussion-cap-maker |
2
|
0
|
2
|
3
|
Perfumer |
2
|
1
|
2
|
0
|
Physician |
17
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pig-dealer |
20
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pill-box-manufacturer |
3
|
0
|
1
|
3
|
Pilot |
13
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pin-maker |
11
|
0
|
5
|
4
|
Pipe-maker |
26
|
4
|
2
|
0
|
Plasterer |
54
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Plate (Case) maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Plate-worker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Police-officer, Constable, and Watchman |
274
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Polisher |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Porter and Messenger |
167
|
29
|
3
|
0
|
Porter Merchant and Dealer |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Potter |
21
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Poulterer |
57
|
0
|
7
|
0
|
Printer |
89
|
34
|
1
|
0
|
Printer, Calico |
13
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Printer, Copper-plate |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Provision-merchant |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pump-maker |
0
|
0
|
2
|
1
|
Quack Doctor |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Rag-dealer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Railway Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Railway Contractor |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Railway Plate-layer |
20
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Railway Service |
55
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Reed Merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Reed-layer |
4
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Rope and Cord-spinner |
38
|
7
|
2
|
0
|
Rush Plaiter |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Russian Broker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Sack-maker |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Saddler, and Harness and Collar-maker |
308
|
35
|
10
|
0
|
Sail-maker |
44
|
8
|
1
|
1
|
Salesman |
26
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Salt-refiner |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Saw-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Sawyer |
486
|
26
|
0
|
0
|
Schoolmaster, Mistress, and Assistant; Tutor or Governess |
349
|
19
|
774
|
31
|
Scrivener |
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Seaman |
1,034
|
122
|
0
|
0
|
Seamstress |
0
|
0
|
129
|
15
|
Seedsman |
32
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Servant, Domestic |
3,002
|
1,803
|
8,699
|
6,229
|
Shell-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Sheriff's Officer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ship and Smack-owner |
30
|
0
|
8
|
0
|
Ship Builder and Carpenter |
114
|
16
|
0
|
0
|
Ship Caulker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ship Chandler |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ship-agent and Broker |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Shop-keeper |
198
|
18
|
164
|
2
|
Sieve-maker |
3
|
1
|
6
|
5
|
Silk Broker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Silk Dealer and Merchant |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Silk Manufacture (all branches) |
503
|
139
|
493
|
447
|
Silk Mercer |
4
|
0
|
3
|
1
|
Skinner |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Slater |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Slop-seller |
5
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Soap-maker |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Spring-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Starch and Blue-manufacturer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Stationer |
24
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
Stay and Corset-maker |
4
|
0
|
32
|
6
|
Steam-packet Agent |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Stock-maker |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Stone-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Store-keeper |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Straw Bonnet and Hat-maker |
9
|
0
|
64
|
13
|
Straw-plait dealer |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Straw-plait Manufacture (all branches) |
8
|
4
|
281
|
138
|
Sugar Broker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Sugar-boiler and Refiner |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Surgeon and Apothecary |
280
|
14
|
0
|
0
|
Surveyor |
52
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
Surveyor, Land |
18
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Surveyor, Road |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tailor |
1,138
|
161
|
96
|
29
|
Tallow and Wax Chandler |
62
|
5
|
3
|
0
|
Tambour-worker and Lace-maker |
4
|
0
|
87
|
156
|
Tanner |
80
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
Tarpaulin-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tavern-keeper, Beer-shop-keeper |
104
|
2
|
35
|
0
|
Tavern-keeper, Hotel and Inn-keeper |
287
|
1
|
70
|
2
|
Tavern-keeper, Publican and Victualler |
556
|
4
|
93
|
1
|
Tea-broker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Dancing |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Drawing |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of French |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Music |
21
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
Timber-merchant |
13
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Tin-plate-worker and Tinman |
40
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Tobacconist and Snuff-manufacturer |
8
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
Toll-collector |
33
|
1
|
5
|
0
|
Tool-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Toy-dealer |
1
|
0
|
8
|
0
|
Traveller, Commercial |
14
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tripe-dresser |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Trunk and Box-maker |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Turner |
37
|
11
|
3
|
0
|
Type-founder |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Umbrella and Parasol-maker |
14
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Undertaker |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Velvet-manufacturer |
2
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Vermin-destroyer |
32
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Vinegar-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Warehouseman |
30
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Water-bailiff |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Weaver |
114
|
17
|
49
|
26
|
Well-sinker |
14
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Wharfinger |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wheelwright |
752
|
89
|
10
|
0
|
Whip-maker |
9
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Whitesmith |
81
|
8
|
0
|
0
|
Whiting-manufacturer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wine-merchant |
35
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Wire-worker |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wood Cutter and Woodman |
62
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
Wood-ranger |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wool-card-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wool-dealer and Stapler |
18
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Woollen-draper |
16
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
Woollen-manufacture (all branches) |
30
|
2
|
30
|
11
|
Yeast-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Total Number of Persons whose Occupations are returned as above |
81,207
|
12,761
|
15,940
|
7,893
|
Other Persons employed in Trade (branch not specified) |
332
|
410
|
50
|
36
|
Number of Persons returned as of Independent Means |
1,915
|
104
|
5,071
|
313
|
Almspeople, Pensioners, Paupers, and Beggars |
1,079
|
690
|
1,032
|
669
|
Other Persons |
985
|
44
|
419
|
13
|
Residue of Population |
5,566
|
67,255
|
69,043
|
72,152
|
TOTAL POPULATION |
91,084
|
81,264
|
91,555
|
81,076
|
Click on the triangles for all about a particular number.
This website does not try to provide an exact replica of the original printed census
tables, which often had thousands of rows and far more columns than will fit on our web pages.
Instead, we let you drill down from national totals to the most detailed data available. The
column headings are those that appeared in the original printed report. The numbers presented
here, which are the same ones we use to create statistical maps and graphs, come from the
census table and have usually been carefully checked.
The system can only hold statistics for units listed in our administrative gazetteer, so some
rows from the original table may be missing. Sometimes big low-level units, like urban
parishes, were divided between more than one higher-level units, like Registration
sub-Districts. This is why some pages will give a higher figure for a lower-level
unit: it covers the whole of the lower-level unit, not just the part within the current
higher-level unit.